Dourine affects horses, donkeys, mules, zebras and other members of the equid family.

It doesn’t affect humans.

There has never been a known case of dourine in Great Britain.

Dourine is a notifiable animal disease. If you suspect it you must report it immediately by calling the Defra Rural Services Helpline on 03000 200 301. In Wales, contact 0300 303 8268. In Scotland, contact your local Field Services Office. Failure to do so is an offence.

The main clinical signs are:

• fever
• swelling of genital areas or udders and the surrounding skin
• fluid discharge from genitals (in mares)
• lesions or damage to the skin
• stiffness and weakness
• lack of coordination
• inability to move

Dourine is often fatal, although some animals show no signs and recover from the disease.

How dourine spreads:

Dourine spreads through sexual contact.

The disease is caused by a parasite which cannot survive outside the animal’s body. The parasite dies quickly in the carcass of affected animals.

Preventing and controlling dourine:

You can help prevent dourine by practising strict biosecurity on your premises.

If you report suspicion of dourine, APHA vets will investigate.

If dourine is confirmed, the outbreak will be controlled in line with the contingency plan for exotic notifiable diseases.

Infection control resources

Use our infection control resources to help your clients understand how to manage biosecurity on their yard to both prevent and manage the spread of infectious diseases.

Access the resources

 GOV.UK - Dourine

 Center for Food Security and Public Health (USA) - Dourine

Epizootic lymphangitis is a notifiable animal disease. If you suspect it you must report it immediately by calling the Defra Rural Services Helpline on 03000 200 301. In Wales, contact 0300 303 8268. In Scotland, contact your local Field Services Office. Failure to do so is an offence.

Clinical signs include:

• patches of damaged skin anywhere on the body
• swollen and hard glands
• a thick yellow scab over a patch of ulcers
• discharge or ulcers in the nostrils

Pay special attention to damaged skin in and around wounds, especially if the wound has been healed for months.

The earlier you detect epizootic lymphangitis, the more likely the disease can be cured. Fatality increases the later the disease is found.

How epizootic lymphangitis is spread

Epizootic lymphangitis is spread by flies and by contaminated riding equipment.

The disease can live in soil for up to 15 days.

Preventing and controlling epizootic lymphangitis

You can help prevent epizootic lymphangitis by practising strict biosecurity on your premises.

If you report suspicion of epizootic lymphangitis, APHA vets will investigate.

If epizootic lymphangitis is confirmed the outbreak will be controlled in line with the contingency plan for exotic notifiable diseases.

Infection control resources

Use our infection control resources to help your clients understand how to manage biosecurity on their yard to both prevent and manage the spread of infectious diseases.

Access the resources

 GOV.UK - Epizootic Lymphangitis

 Center for Food Security and Public Health (USA) - Epizootic Lymphangitis

Humans aren’t affected.

The last outbreak in Great Britain was in 2012.

This epidemiology report is a summary of the investigations by APHA to control the 2 incidents of equine infectious anaemia in Cornwall and Devon in 2012.

Equine infectious anaemia is a notifiable animal disease. If you suspect it you must report it immediately by calling the Defra Rural Services Helpline on 03000 200 301. In Wales, contact 0300 303 8268. In Scotland, contact your local Field Services Office. Failure to do so is an offence.

Some infected animals don’t show signs of equine infectious anaemia, or signs are overlooked because they don’t last for long.

Clinical signs can include:

• recurring fever
• tiredness, weakness and depression
• loss of appetite and weight loss

How equine infectious anaemia is spread

Equine infections anaemia is transmitted by large horseflies. The flies are only active from May to September, with a peak in July and August.

The horseflies only travel short distances to feed, but the disease can be carried over long distances by infected horses or contaminated blood products.

The disease can also be spread through medical equipment such as needles or in the semen of infected animals.

Preventing and controlling equine infectious anaemia

You can help prevent equine infectious anaemia by practising good biosecurity on your premises.

If you report suspicion of equine infectious anaemia, APHA vets will investigate.

If the disease is confirmed the outbreak will be controlled in line with the equine infectious anaemia control strategy and the contingency plan for exotic notifiable diseases.

Infection control resources

Use our infection control resources to help your clients understand how to manage biosecurity on their yard to both prevent and manage the spread of infectious diseases.

Access the resources

 GOV.UK - Equine Infectious Anaemia (swamp fever)

Center for Food Security and Public Health (USA) - Equine Infectious Anemia

EVA is a notifiable viral disease that affects horses, mules and donkeys. It is notifiable in all stallions, and in mares that have been mated or inseminated within 14 days.

It occurs in both Thoroughbred and non-Thoroughbred populations and is currently a relatively common disease in Europe and other parts of the world, but is relatively rare in the UK.

While it is rarely life threatening to otherwise healthy adult horses, EVA is of special concern to horse breeders because it can cause abortion in pregnant mares, death in young foals and render breeding stallions permanent carriers of the virus.

EVA causes a variety of symptoms including fever; nasal discharge; conjunctivitis; swelling of the lower legs, eye socket, scrotum and mammary gland; depression and “nettle rash” and can cause abortion. It is also possible that a horse becomes infected and has the ability to pass that infection onto other horses but shows no clinical (outwardly obvious) signs itself. EVA is a notifiable disease in the UK in stallions, and anyone who suspects that a horse is exhibiting any of the symptoms of EVA must by law notify the Divisional Veterinary Manager of Defra. This should be done promptly and it’s also advisable to call your own vet.

One of the major problems with EVA is that it may be transmitted by horses which show no clinical signs of disease themselves, as well as by horses which do exhibit the typical signs of EVA. Routes of transmission are:

• By the respiratory route i.e. in nasal (nose) discharges.
• During breeding, at natural cover and also in fresh, chilled and frozen semen.
• During teasing.
• Via contact with aborted foetuses and the placenta/foetal fluids.

Thus horses might become infected by any other horse which has the respiratory form of EVA and is passing on the virus via a “runny nose” or coughing and snorting; via contact with foetuses which have been aborted due to EVA and also via contact with infected semen (natural cover or AI).

Stallions which have become infected may show no signs of clinical disease themselves but can pass the disease on to mares via their semen. This may be for several weeks, months or years after infection and possibly even for life. These are the so-called “shedder” stallions. Mares bred to these stallions may or may not show any clinical signs of disease themselves but can spread EVA to other horses via the respiratory route and also via abortion.

Consider the following scenario: in a situation where EVA control measures are inadequate, a mare with the respiratory form of EVA might enter a stud, come into contact with other mares and infect those mares with EVA. The original mare and the other mares could then pass EVA to the stallion(s) during breeding. The stallion(s) could start “shedding” EVA in his (their) semen, and would infect other mares which were subsequently bred to him (them), naturally or by A.I. Because not all horses with EVA show clinical signs, those mares might then return home and infect other mares (thus potentially causing abortion) or other stallions (thus potentially causing spread to more mares) and so the cycle of infection goes on.

This example illustrates how the potential for disease transmission between horses is huge and it is for this reason that control measures must be adhered to if the spread of EVA within the UK is to be contained/reduced.

The aim of current control measures is to prevent the spread of EVA within the UK horse population. Because the most high-risk situations in terms of disease spread are when breeding activities are taking place i.e. when mares are being covered/inseminated; mares are foaling down, and there is generally lots of movement of horses between premises, the control measures focus on animals being used for breeding purposes. Because horses which have EVA and are capable of passing the disease onto other horses do not necessarily show clinical signs of disease, control and prevention is based upon blood testing to show which animals have the disease and therefore pose a risk to other animals.

Vaccination, particularly of stallions, may also be appropriate. If a horse is blood tested for EVA (the “serological” test) the result will be either negative or positive. A negative result indicates that the horse has not been infected with the virus and is therefore generally not a danger to other horses i.e. it cannot transmit (pass on) EVA to other horses. A positive result may indicate either that the horse currently has the infection (in which case it is a risk to other animals); that it has had the infection in the past, or that it has been vaccinated against the disease.

If a horse has a positive result, it should be isolated and re-tested 2 weeks after the initial test. This is to help distinguish between those which currently have EVA and are therefore a risk to other horses and those which have had EVA at some time in the past but are not a risk to other horses.

The only way currently of distinguishing a horse which is infected with EVA from a horse which has been vaccinated against EVA is by reference to its vaccination record and the results of blood tests taken before and after vaccination. For this reason, accurate record keeping is essential. Blood testing horses to establish their EVA status before they enter a premises; testing and vaccinating stallions; quarantining horses where necessary and keeping horses in small groups of similar-aged animals are important tools in controlling the spread of EVA. Veterinary Surgeons can advise their clients on the exact measures necessary in differing circumstances.

Comprehensive recommendations are provided in the Codes of Practice which are published by the Horseracing Betting Levy Board each year, a copy of which is available free to anyone upon request (see below).

To summarise the Codes, the EVA status of ALL breeding stock (mares and stallions) should be established before breeding begins each year i.e. after January 1st. as follows:

• All stallions should be blood tested to prove that they are not infected with EVA. In the event of the test coming back positive without proof that the positive result is due to vaccination, the semen must be tested to prove that it does not contain EVA.
• All mares should have a blood test taken after January 1st and within 28 days of them entering a stud/AI Centre to prove that they are not currently infected with EVA and thus do not pose a threat to other mares/stallions. Special rules apply to imported mares and these are detailed in the Codes of Practice (see below).
• No-one should inseminate semen (fresh, chilled or frozen) unless that semen is accompanied by a certificate proving that it does not contain EVA.
• EVA is a potentially very serious disease for the horse population of the UK. The spread of this disease can be reduced by all horse owners, but particularly those involved in breeding horses, acting responsibly and enlisting the help of their own Vets in following the control measures outlined above.

Copies of the Code of Practice on EVA are available, free of charge, from the Horserace Betting Levy Board email: hblb@hblb.org.uk They are also on the Board’s website and can be viewed or downloaded in pdf format. See www.hblb.org.uk and on the home page, select Codes of Practice on Equine Diseases.

Infection control resources

Use our infection control resources to help your clients understand how to manage biosecurity on their yard to both prevent and manage the spread of infectious diseases.

Access the resources

We support the guidance provided in HBLB International Codes of Practice 2024 which emphasises the importance of routine vaccination against EVA for stallions and teasers resident in the UK. 

Detailed guidance on recommendations for reducing the risk of EVA stallions imported for breeding and sport and when semen is used for artificial insemination.

 Changes to breeding regulations for the 2024 breeding season

 Approaching the 2024 breeding season

 July 2023: Zoetis Equip Artervac update - letter from Tim Burgess

 February 2023: Zoetis Equip Artervac update

 February 2023: BEVA guidance on supply of Equip Artervac

 December 2022: Equip Artervac supply issue

 December 2022: Letter to TBA members regarding supply of Equip Artervac

 GOV.UK - Equine Viral Arteritis

 BEVA, BEF and BHS EVA briefing document

Viruses which can cause equine encephalitis include but are not limited to:

• Japanese encephalitis
• Western equine encephalomyelitis virus
• Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus
• Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus
• West Nile Virus

Encephalomyelitis means inflammation of the brain and spinal cord.

Equine viral encephalomyelitis can be fatal, although some animals will recover from the disease.

Equine viral encephalomyelitis is a notifiable animal disease. If you suspect it, you must report it immediately by calling the Defra Rural Services Helpline on 03000 200 301. In Wales, contact 0300 303 8268. In Scotland, contact your local Field Services Office. Failure to do so is an offence.

Animals affected by the disease

Equine viral encephalomyelitis mainly affects members of the equid family, such as:

• horses
• donkeys
• mules
• zebras

Other animals can also be affected, such as:

• cattle, sheep and goats
• pigs
• birds, including poultry
• dogs
• rodents

Humans can also be affected.

Clinical signs can be different depending on which virus the animal has. Some animals will not show any signs at all.

You may spot these signs soon after infection:

• fever for several days
• lack of appetite
• loss of weight and condition
• depression
• stiffness and weakness

You may spot these signs in the later stages of infection:

• behavioural changes - such as circling, head pressing or aimless wandering
• hyperexcitability
• blindness
• lack of coordination and balance
• inability to move
• staggering or standing with an open stance
• seizures

Infections that have similar signs

You may also see similar clinical signs if your animal is infected with one of the following:

• rabies
• tetanus
• African Horse Sickness
• bacterial meningitis
• toxic poisoning
• leucoencephalomalacia (Fusarium intoxication)

You must report these signs even if you think your animal does not have equine viral encephalomyelitis.

How equine viral encephalomyelitis spreads

The viruses that cause equine viral encephalomyelitis are mainly spread by mosquitoes. Other animals, including wild birds or rodents, can also carry the virus between different areas.

Only some types of mosquito can spread the virus. This means that if an infected horse did enter the UK, the possibility of the disease spreading would be low.

There has never been an outbreak of equine viral encephalomyelitis in the UK.

Risk to humans

Humans can be infected by equine encephalitis viruses if they are bitten by an infected mosquito. Most people have no symptoms.

An infected person or horse cannot pass the virus directly to others. In rare cases, the virus can be spread during surgical interventions, such as a blood transfusion.

If your animal displays signs of infection and you are worried about your health, contact your GP for advice.

Prevent and control equine viral encephalomyelitis

If you import animals, you must follow the rules to make sure they are free from disease and fit to travel.

You can help prevent the disease by:

• being familiar with the clinical signs of equine viral encephalomyelitis
• practising strict biosecurity on your premises

If the disease is confirmed, the outbreak will be controlled in line with the contingency plan for exotic notifiable diseases.

Find out what happens when a notifiable disease is suspected or confirmed.

Infection control resources

Use our infection control resources to help your clients understand how to manage biosecurity on their yard to both prevent and manage the spread of infectious diseases.

Access the resources

 GOV.UK - Equine Viral Encephalomyelitis

 Center for Food Security and Public Health (USA) - Equine Encephalitides

 Fast facts for clients

Humans can also be affected.

The last confirmed case in Great Britain was in 1928.

Glanders and farcy are notifiable animal diseases. If you suspect these diseases you must report them immediately by calling the Defra Rural Services Helpline on 03000 200 301. In Wales, contact 0300 303 8268. In Scotland, contact your local Field Services Office. Failure to do so is an offence.

Risk to humans from glanders and farcy

Glanders is a potentially serious disease in humans if it is not treated but effective treatments are available.

The chance of glanders being transmitted from a horse to a human is very low. Human cases of glanders are rare. Transmission to humans only happens where a human has been in close contact with infected animals which are showing clear signs of disease.

Humans in contact with cases of glanders are not at risk of passing disease on to other humans.

You should isolate any suspect animals and avoid contact where possible. Use protective clothing during contact including:

• gloves
• face mask
• goggles or eye shield

After use dispose of this protective equipment in a sealed bag and wash your hands with soap and water.

How to spot glanders and farcy

In both glanders and farcy small lumps, or ‘nodules’, may form beneath the skin. These nodules will ‘ulcerate’ or burst.

If the nodules are mainly in the nostrils, lungs and other internal organs, the disease is known as glanders.

If the nodules are mainly on the surface of a horse’s limbs or body, the disease is known as farcy.

Chronic glanders and farcy

Glanders and farcy can be ‘chronic’, lasting for several months or even years, before affected animals eventually die from lung damage.

Another sign of chronic glanders or farcy is enlarged lymph nodes, for example in the neck.

Acute glanders and farcy

The disease can also be ‘acute’, developing suddenly and intensely and leading to death within a few days.

Other signs of acute glanders include:

• coughing
• discharge from the nose
• fever

How glanders and farcy are spread

Glanders and farcy are spread when horses eat infected food, water or come into contact with contaminated equipment. Infected animals that do not die from the disease will continue to carry and spread it.

Preventing and controlling glanders and farcy

You can help prevent disease by practising strict biosecurity on your premises.

If you report suspicion of glanders or farcy Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) vets will investigate.

If glanders or farcy are confirmed, the outbreak will be controlled in line with the contingency plan for exotic notifiable diseases.

Find out more about prevention and control, read the guidance on:

• disease prevention for livestock keepers

Infection control resources

Use our infection control resources to help your clients understand how to manage biosecurity on their yard to both prevent and manage the spread of infectious diseases.

Access the resources

 GOV.UK - Glanders and farcy

 Center for Food Security and Public Health (USA) - Glanders & Farcy

Rabies was eradicated from all UK animals except bats in 1922. The last case in an imported animal outside of quarantine was in 1970.

Rabies is a notifiable animal disease. If you suspect it you must report it immediately by calling the Defra Rural Services Helpline on 03000 200 301. In Wales, contact 0300 303 8268. In Scotland, contact your local Field Services Office. Failure to do so is an offence.

Early clinical signs of rabies include:

• behaviour changes - friendly animals may become cautious, shy animals may become bold
• in dogs, a tendency to excessively seek attention and lick owners
• hypersensitivity to noise or light

This can be followed by:

• increased aggression - dogs may try to break free and attack objects, animals and handlers
• eyes taking on a staring expression
• drooping lower jaw and more saliva than normal produced
• itching
• thirst

The final stages of rabies include:

• weak muscles, especially legs and tail
• difficulty swallowing
• drooping eyelids
• saliva frothing at the mouth
• general paralysis followed by convulsions and coma before death

Some animals will show no signs at all, so laboratory tests are required to confirm rabies.

If a mammal that you own is bitten or scratched by a bat, or another animal that may be rabid, consult a vet.

How rabies is spread

Rabies is present in the saliva of infected animals and is usually spread by the bite of an infected animal.

Rabid saliva can also infect open wounds or mucous membranes such as the nostrils, mouth and lips, eyelids and ears.

Rabies webinar for veterinary professionals

Defra’s rabies webinar for veterinary professionals gives information on:

• the current emergency situation
• the clinical signs of rabies
• how to report a suspected case
• what happens at the lab
• the control measures that are in place
• public health aspects of the disease

Rabies in bats

Although rabies has been eradicated from the UK, a strain of the disease continues to be present in bats in this country.

Bat rabies, or European bat lyssavirus is very rare among bats in the UK. But if you handle bats regularly you should be vaccinated as a precaution.

If you have not been vaccinated against the disease:

• assume that all bats are possible carriers of bat rabies
• avoid touching bats, living or dead, whenever possible
• if you must touch a bat, wear thick gloves to avoid being bitten or scratched

Risks to humans for rabies

You may have been exposed to rabies, if you are bitten or scratched by:

• a bat in the UK
• any mammal in countries where rabies is present in other animals

If there is a risk you have been exposed to the disease you should:

• wash your wound thoroughly with soap and water
• disinfect the wound
• immediately contact a doctor for treatment

The disease is fatal for humans once signs of the disease appear. It can only be prevented if you are treated soon after exposure.

Read the NHS guide to rabies for more information about the disease in humans

Preventing rabies

If you are bringing an animal into the UK you must follow these requirements for pet travel.

If you suspect rabies

Do not approach live animals that you think may be rabid.

Do not touch dead animals that may have had the disease.

Instead you must report it immediately by calling the Defra Rural Services Helpline on 03000 200 301, so the animal can be tested.

If rabies is confirmed

If rabies is confirmed the outbreak will be controlled in line with the rabies control strategy.

Infection control resources

Use our infection control resources to help your clients understand how to manage biosecurity on their yard to both prevent and manage the spread of infectious diseases.

Access the resources

 GOV.UK - Rabies

 Center for Food Security and Public Health (USA) - Rabies

How to spot the disease

The signs of vesicular stomatitis are very similar to foot and mouth disease (FMD). The only way to confirm the disease is by laboratory testing.

The main signs of vesicular stomatitis are:

• fever
• blisters on feet, snout, lips, tongue and inside the mouth
• lameness
• increased production of spit

Vesicular stomatitis is a notifiable animal disease. If you suspect it you must report it immediately by calling the Defra Rural Services Helpline on 03000 200 301. In Wales, contact 0300 303 8268. In Scotland, contact your local Field Services Office. Failure to do so is an offence.

How the disease is spread

The disease is spread by certain types of biting flies and by direct contact with infected animals.

You can help prevent the disease by practising strict biosecurity on your premises.

If you report suspicion of vesicular stomatitis, APHA vets will investigate.

If vesicular stomatitis is confirmed, the outbreak will be controlled in line with the contingency plan for exotic notifiable diseases.

Infection control resources

Use our infection control resources to help your clients understand how to manage biosecurity on their yard to both prevent and manage the spread of infectious diseases.

Access the resources

 GOV.UK - Vesicular stomatitis

 Center for Food Security and Public Health (USA) - Vesicular stomatitis

Warble fly mainly affects cattle. It can also affect:

• horses
• deer

Warble fly doesn’t affect humans.

The last outbreak in Great Britain was in 1990.

If you suspect the disease in Scotland, you must tell the Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) immediately. Failure to do so is an offence.

Warble fly is a notifiable disease in cattle only in Scotland as the England and Wales regulations were revoked from 1 April 2015.

How warble fly is spread

The disease is spread by the warble fly, which lays eggs on the hide of animals.

The main sign of warble fly is large, soft and painful swellings on the back of the animal of up to 3 millimetres wide.

You can help prevent the disease by practising strict biosecurity on your premises.

If you report suspicion of warble fly in Scotland, APHA vets will investigate.

If warble fly is confirmed the outbreak will be controlled in line with the Scotland exotic diseases of animals contingency framework plan.

An approved list of products to treat warble fly can be found on the Veterinary Medicines Directorate Product Information Database by using the predefined search ‘Warble’.

Infection control resources

Use our infection control resources to help your clients understand how to manage biosecurity on their yard to both prevent and manage the spread of infectious diseases.

Access the resources

 GOV.UK - Warble Fly

• Imported horses
• Seasonal association with the presence of biting insects
• Primary case not yet seen in the UK however endemic in parts of mainland Europe and vector (Culex spp mosquito) is present in UK

In horses clinical signs can include:

• lack of energy
• loss of coordination
• weakness in limbs leading to stumbling

Some horses will not show any signs at all.

Birds are the main carrier of West Nile fever, but not all species show signs of the disease.

Humans can be affected by West Nile virus, although often the infection does not lead to any symptoms. If present, the most common symptoms are a flu-like illness.

Most mild infections resolve in a few days. A more severe disease develops in less than 1% of cases.

See Public Health England information about West Nile virus in the UK.

You can read more about West Nile virus in humans at NHS Choices.

WNV is a notifiable disease to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Agency (DEFRA) in England and Wales, and in Scotland and Northern Ireland to the equivalent government authority. 

If you suspect it you must report it immediately by calling:

• England: Defra Rural Services Helpline on 03000 200 301
• Wales: 0300 303 8268
• Scotland: contact your local Field Services Office

Failure to do so is an offence.

See APHA Testing for exclusion of West Nile virus in horses 

How West Nile Virus is spread

The disease is spread by mosquitoes. It is not spread directly between animals.

Birds are the most common carriers and may spread West Nile fever between countries when they migrate.

Preventing and controlling West Nile Virus fever

You can help prevent the disease by practising strict biosecurity on your premises.

If you report suspicion of West Nile fever, APHA vets will investigate.

If the disease is confirmed it will be controlled in line with the contingency plan for exotic notifiable diseases.

Testing for exclusion of West Nile Virus

Defra, the Scottish Government, the Welsh Government and APHA are offering resting for exclusion of WNV to horse keepers and their veterinary surgeons. Find out more.

Infection control resources

Use our infection control resources to help your clients understand how to manage biosecurity on their yard to both prevent and manage the spread of infectious diseases.

Access the resources

BEVA position statement

In the UK, vaccination is currently permissible and a licensed product is available. Manufacturers’ recommendations for dosing and administration should be followed. There is no clear evidence of harm or benefit associated with combining West Nile vaccine with other vaccines. 

We recommend that horses travelling to areas where there is a risk of West Nile Fever (for example during the mosquito season in a country where the virus is endemic) should be vaccinated before they travel. Regular vaccination is particularly relevant to race and sports horses travelling abroad for competition. For up-to-date information on global distribution go to the International Collating Centre for equine disease. 

 GOV.UK - West Nile Virus

Resources for vets

 EIDS Report 2023: one to watch

 BEVA webinar: WNV - Should we be worried? Orsolya Kutasi

 BEVA podcast: West Nile Virus - Richard Newton

 TheHorse.com YouTube video: West Nile Virus clinical signs

 Boehringer Academy webinar: West Nile virus - Exotic stranger close to home

Resources for clients

 Iowa State University: Fast facts for clients on WNV

 Iowa State University: Further information on WNV

Research

 "Spatial distribution and infection of WNV lineages 1 and 2 in France from 2015 to 2020" Equine Veterinary Journal - Volume 53, Issue S56 - First published: 24 September 2021

 "The sensitivity of horse surveillance in detecting West Nile and Usutu viruses in central Italy" Equine Veterinary Journal - Volume 53, Issue S56 - First published: 24 September 2021

 "Seroprevalence of equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV), equine arteritis virus (EAV) and West Nile virus (WNV) in donkeys in eastern Algeria in 2015" Equine Veterinary Journal - Volume 53, Issue S56 - First published: 24 September 2021

 "Identification of antiviral molecules against West-Nile virus by an approach combining cell imaging and equine neural cells derived from induced-pluripotent stem cells" Equine Veterinary Journal - Volume 53, Issue S56 - First published: 24 September 2021